History of India – A Timeline
Stone age 70,000-7000 BCE
Mehrgarh Culture 7000-3300 BCE
Indus Valley Civilization 3300-1700 BCE
Late Harappan Culture 1700-1300 BCE
Vedic Civilization 1500-500 BCE
– Iron Age Kingdoms – 1200-700 BCE
MahaJanapadas 700-300 BCE
Magadha Empire 684-26 BCE
– Maurya Dynasty – 321-184 BCE
Middle Kingdoms 200 BCE-1279 CE
– Satavahana Empire – 230 BCE-199 CE
– Kushan Empire – 60-240 CE
– Gupta Empire – 240-550
– Chola Empire – 848-1279
Islamic Sultanates 1206-1596
– Delhi Sultanate – 1206-1526
– Deccan Sultanates – 1490-1596
Hoysala Empire 1040-1346
Vijayanagara Empire 1336-1565
Mughal Era 1526-1707
Maratha Empire 1674-1818
Colonial Era 1757-1947
– British East India Coy – 1757-1857
– British India – 1858-1947
Republic of India 1947 onwards
Time Zones
India is five and a half hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time. That means if it is 1 pm in New Delhi, India it is 7:30am in London and 2:30 am in New York.
IMPORTANT DATES in MUGHAL HISTORY
1526-1530 Babur
In 1526, Zahirud-Din Mohammad, known as Babur, a direct descendant of Timur, and believed a descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother, defeated the larger army of Ibrahim Lodi, the rular of the large North Indian Delhi Sultanate. It is estimated that Babur’s forces numbered about 12,000 men and 15 to 20 pieces of field artillery and although Lodi had around 100,000 men and at least 100 elephants, Babur’s guns proved decisive in battle, Babur used the guns to scare the elephants away, causing them to trample Lodi’s own men. Lodi died on the field of battle, abandoned by his feudatories and generals, most of who changed their allegiance to the new master of Delhi. This battle marked the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India.
1530 – 1556 Humayun
Humayun succeeded his father Babur and became an emperor in India. During the period 1540-1555, Humayun was defeated and dislodged by insurrections of nobles from the old Lodi regime. In 1540, the Mughal domain came under the control of Farid Khan Sur, who assumed the regional name of Shir Shah Sur who was a competent and efficient ruler in his own right, however, his untimely death and the military incompetence of his successors enable Humayun to regain his throne in 1555 but died a few months later, when he fell down the steps of his library in his haste to obey the muezzin’s call to prayer, and was succeeded by his son, the 13-year-old Akbar.
1556 – 1605 Akbar
Akbar was the most sophisticated Mughal commander and leader, Akbar initiated certain important policies, such as religious liberalism, inclusion of Hindus in the affairs of the empire, and political alliance/marriage with the Hindu Rajput cast; he also adopted some policies of Sher Shah Suri, such as the division of the empire into sarkars for administration. Akbar build his capital in FatehpurSikri.
1605-1627 Jahangir
Jahangir started his reign with several popular acts. He released prisoners of war, promised to protect Islam and granted general amnesty to his opponents. He was an alcoholic and susceptible to the influence of others, a weakness exploited b many. It was during Jahangir’s reign that the British got formal permission to trade freely in the Mughal Empire.
1628 – 1658 Shah Jahan
After revolting against his father Jahangir, he succeeded to the throne on his father’s death in 1627. Prince Khurram was 35 years old when he ascended the throne as Shah Jahan (King of the World). It was during his reign that the Mughal power attained its greatest prosperity. The period of his reign was the golden age of India architecture. Shah Jahan erected many splendid monument, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal. In 1658 he fell ill, and was confined by his son Aurangzeb in the Fort of Agra until his death in 1666.
1659 – 1707 Aurangzeb
In 1659, after a bitter struggle with his three brother, Aurangzeb was the victor and held a coronation durbar in the Red For where he assumed the title of Alamgir (World conqueror). He pursued a policy where religious tolerance had little space and spent nearly his entire career seeking to expand his realm into the Deccan and south India; this venture sapped the resources of the empire, while provoding strong resistance from the Marathas, Sikhs, and Rajputs. After (and as a result of ) Aurangzeb’s oppressive reign, the empire fell into decline.
1857 Bahadur Shah
Bahadur Shah II, the last Mughal emperor, was deposed in 1857 when India was brought under the direct rule of the
British East India Company
The British East India Company was one of the first joint-stock companies. It was granted an English Royal Charter by Elizabeth I on December 31, 1600.
The company was founded as The Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies by a group of enterprising and influential businessmen, who obtained the Crown’s charter for exclusive permission of trade in the East Indies for a period of fifteen years. The original object was to break the Dutch monopoly of the spice trade with the East Indies, however, initially it made little impression and at first it could not establish a lasting outpost in the East Indies. Eventually ships belonging to the company arrived India, docking at Surat, which was established as a trade transit point in 1608. In the next two years, it managed to build its first factory in the town of Machilipatnam in the Coromandel Coast in the Bay of Bengal. The high profits reported by the Company after landing in India, initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading companies in England. But, in 1609, he renewed the charter given to the Company for an indefinite period, including a clause, which specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years.
Sir Thomas Roe reached the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir, as the emissary of King James I in 1615, and gained for the British unequaled trade privileges. Although the company was son reaping large profits form its Indian export (chiefly textiles), it had to deal with serious difficulties both in England and in India. During the 17th Century, its monopoly of Indian trade was constantly challenged by independent English trader called “interlopers” in 1698 a rival company was actually chartered, but a merger of the two companies resolved the conflict in 1708. By that time the company has established in India the three presidencies of Madras (now Chennai), Bombay (now Mumbai), and Calcutta (now Kolkata). As Mughal power declined, these settlements became subject to increasing harassment by local princes, and the company began to protect itself by intervening more and more in Indian political affairs. It had, moreover, a serious rival in the French East India Company, which under Joseph Francois Dupleix launched an aggressive policy of expansion. The victories (1751-60) of Rober Clive over the French made the company dominant in India, and by a treaty1765 it assumed control of the administration of Bengal. Revenues from Bengal were used for trade and for personal enrichment.
Hinduism
The Hindu religion, exactly like the country of its origin, is unique.
Where Christians have the Bible and Muslims the Koran, Hindus have a range of texts from which to refer: the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Bhagwad Gita, the Mahabharata or the Ramayana.
Likewise with their gods, Hinduism boasts a pantheaon of no less than 350,000 gods and goddesses. There is a lot of space within that pantheon for a Hindu to choose which god they wish to worship, if at all. There is no hard a fast rule here, although continuity within the family or community is common.
Similarly, there is a lot of flexibility in the way one wishes to worship. Some Hindus begin the day with a visit to the neighborhood temple; others adhere to fasts and rituals. Some go on pilgrimages and bathe in holy rivers; still others declare all rituals redundant. Hinduism, like India thrives and revels in all its contradictions. Its elastic structure allows great flexibility and at its best is one of the more tolerant religions of the world.
Concepts and Beliefs
Atman: Though casually described as the self, atman is actually the spirit or soul that is enshrined in every human being. When an individual attains moksha, his atman is believed to merge with the divine or the universal consciousness.
Dharma: Literally means ‘that which is established by law, duty or custom’, it implies an order of values that links the individual to the social and the cosmic. Hindus believe that each act bears certain consequences in individual, social ethical and cosmic terms. A dharmic act, therefore, is one that brings positive results.
Karma Actions or deeds performed by an individual in a lifetime. In fact, karma is believed to accrue from past births.
Mantra a sacred syllable or ritual incarnation that is believed to have the power to convert word into reality.
Maya is the illusion that the tangible world is the real world. According to Hinduism the real world is the world of the soul, not of the body and the senses.
Moksha is the final release or liberation of a soul from the endless cycle of death and rebirth.
Samadhi: is the final stage of ecstasy when the soul transcends the human body to merge with the cosmos.
Samsara is the endless cycle of death and rebirth. In Hinduism a soul is reincarnated till it has evolved enough to attain moksha.
Tantra Religious texts that describe an esoteric path to enlightenment.
Yantra A symbolic diagram used as an aid to meditation usually associated to tantra. A condensed symbol of the cosmos; abstract lines, shapes and colors.
Yoga can broadly be described as the method of attaining the ultimate goal (liberation of soul from the body) by mastering the body, the senses and the mind through physical exercise and meditation.
Islam
Islamic influence first came to India in the 7th Century with the advent of Arab traders, which was followed by sporadic raids until the first Muslim kingdom was established in Delhi at the end of the 12th Century.
Their rule gradually spread to the south and eat. During the reign of AlauddinKhilji, only the southern part of India remained outside their power. With the coming of the Mughals in 1506, Islam seeped deeper into India, Akbar’s (1556-1605) policy of religious tolerance brought the Hindus and Muslims still closer together.
The Fie Pillars of Islam are what define a Muslim, these being:
- The ascertain that ‘There is no God but Allah, and Mohammad is his Prophet’.
- Prayer, preferably five times a day.
- Acts of charity should be performed.
- A fast must be observed from down to dust throughout the month of Ramadan, Ramadan is a holy
- month for Muslims because the Prophet received his divine revelation in this month.
- Pilgrimage to Mecca.
Major Islamic Festivals
Urs celebrates the birthday of a Sufi saint and takes place where the respective saint is buried. Some of India’s most venerated Sufis are Salim Chisti in Fatehpur-Sikri (Uttar Pradesh), Moin-ud-din Chisti in Ajmer (Rajasthan) and Nizam-ud-din Auliya in Delhi. The urs at their dargahs (holy shrines) are often an occasion for melas (fairs) and qawwalis (hymns in praise of Allah and his prophet Muhammad).
Eidis celebrated twice every yearand the two are separately referred to as Id-ul-Fitr and and Id-ul-Zuha (Bakr-id, when goats are traditionally slaughtered to make special preparation) Id-ul-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan, the muslim month of fasting. Id-ul-Zuha commemorates Abraham’s attempt to sacrifice his son.
MuharramMourns the murder of Imam Hussain, grandson of the Prophet at karbala. Memorial processions are lead through the streets of Delhi, Agra, Lucknow and Hyderabad, to name a few. Decorated and brightly colouredtazias of bamboo and paper are carried as replicas of the martyr’s tomb. The procession proceeds to frenzied beating of drums and heart-renting cries of.
Christianity
Christianity is India third largest religion, following Hinduism and Islam. It is believed that there have been Christians in India almost for as long as the religion has existed. The Christianity underwent major transformation following European and British Colonisation, because of laws in states that limited the rights of non-Christians.
Portuguese missionaries, who reached the Malabar coast in the late 50th century, made contact with the St. Thomas Christians in Kerala, and sought to introduce them to the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church.
Jesuit missionary St. Francis Xavier (1506-02) instigated and Inquisition in Goa where the majority Hindu population were forced to convert.
Protestant missionaries came in the 18th Century making inroads in Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
Zoroastrian
Subsequent to the fail of the Persian Empire, many Zoroastrians fled to other regions in the hope of preserving their religious tradition. Among them several groups migrated to Gujarat, where they finally settle. The descendants of those refugees are today known as the Parsis.
Central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choi8ce, to choose between the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act to one another. Reward, punishment, happiness and grief all depend on how individuals live their life.
The symbol of fire:the enery of the creator is represented in life sustaining, Zoroastrians usually pray in front of some form of fire (or any source oflight).
Death and burial: Religious rituals related to death are all concerned with the person’s soul and not the body. Zoroastrians believe that on the fourth day after death, the human soul leaves the body: to dispose of their dead the body is left atop open-topped enclosures, called Towers of Silence, or Dokhmas. Vultures and the weather would clean the flesh off the bones, which were then place into an ossuary at the center of the Tower. Fire and Earth were concerned too sacred for the dead to be place in them.
Sikhism
Sikhism is perhaps the second youngest world religion, about 531 years at the end of the millennium. Its founder Nanak (1469-1539) inspired by the best of Hindu and Muslim faiths began to preach his own message of peace and harmony. He attracted may disciples and followers and soon came to be known as Guru Nanak. A new religious tradition was thus born. The term Sikh is derived from the Sanskrit word Shishya (disciple).
More than forming a new religion, Guru Nanak was a social reformer. He saw the plight of lower castes and insisted that every person was alike. To abolish the caste system he established langars (communal eating places) defying the Hindu norm that a person of lower caste could not eat along with a high caste. Nanak stressed that enlightenment could be achieved through devotion to god.
Angad Dev, who started putting together the Guru’s writings, succeeded Guru Nanak as the leader of the Sikhs. He also introduced a script already being used by some Punjabis as the official script of the Sikhs and called it Gurumukhi or the language of the guru.
It was the fifth Guru, Arjun Dev, who commenced the building of the Golden Temple at Amritsar. This temple is the holiest shrine of the Sikhs and every Sikh tries to visit it once in his lifetime. Arjun Dev also collected the poems of Nanak, Kabir and other saints and compiled them to form the scripture of the Sikhs, called AdiGranth (‘The First Book’) or Guru Granth Sahib (‘Book of the Lord’).
The Five ‘Ks’
There are five religious signs that are the mark of a devout Sikh. The names of all five begin with the letter ‘K’ which is why they are often referred to as the five ‘Ks’.
Kesh (hair) Sikhs believed that the course of nature should not disturbed as far as possible, which is why they refrain from cutting their hair.
Kanga (comb) is necessary to keep long hair tidy and this is why Sikhs are supposed to carry a Kanga al all times.
Kara (steel bangle) is regarded as a symbol of strength and is worn on the right wrist by both men and women.
Kirpan (dagger) is small sword and is a symbol of self-defenseand the fight against evil and injustice.
Kachha (undergarment) is a pair of shorts made to be specific design. It formed part of the military uniform in Guru Gobind Singh’s day and also signifies sexual restrain.
Major Six Festivals
Gurupurab – The birthday of Guru Nanak. Sikhs decorate their home with lamps and special services are held at Gurudwaras (sikh temples).
Maghi – celebrated in January, Maghihonours Guru Gobind Singh’s who was besieged the Mughal Army at Anantpur in the 17th Century.
Lohri- This festival marks the end of winter and is celebrated January. It is especially dear to unmarried women who pray that they will find good husband and make an excellent marriage.
Baisakhi – is always celebrated on April 13, the start of the Punjabi New year. It coincides with the harvest and is especially dear to the Sikhs because the Khalsa was created on Bhaisakhi day in 1699.
Buddhism
Buddhism divides its faith into two sects, Mahayana (Greater Ferry) and Hinayana (Lesser Ferry). Hinayana, the original Buddhist faith, endorses the actual preachings of the Bhuddha, emphasising that Bhuddha was not good but simply of a mortal who attained Moksha. Hinayana monasteries and stupas do not have a image of Lord ; instead the Buddha is represented by a symbols like his footprints or an empty throne.
The Law of Impermanence
Everything in the phenomenal world is subject to change, through some things are obviously more enduring than others.
The Law of Causation
Nothing happens by chance or at random. Apart from natural causes, we are subject to the operation of our karma. (See Hinduism for details).
The Four Noble Truths
Buddhism rests upon the foundation of four truths: suffering is universal; suffering is caused and sustained by trishna (thirst or craving); suffering can be prevented and overcome; and there is a way leading to the removal of suffering.
The Eightfold Path
Buddha clearly delineates the path to follow to live a good life. It has eight basic tenets consisting of right conduct, right motive, right resolve, right speech, right livelihood, right attention, right effort and right meditation. By pursuing this path of many-sided restraint and self-perfection, one can conquer craving. Then one is within siht of nirvana, the transcendental state of complete emancipation.
Jainism
Jainism not only rejects the notion of a Personal God, but also the ideas of a single impersonal Absolute Reality. It regards each living being as an independent jiva (soul). In its mundane condition, the soul is permeated by material particles through the working of karma. To attain liberation, a double process is necessary, the incursion of new karma particles must be stopped, and those that have already tainted the soul must be expelled. This is possible only through right faith, right knowledge and right conduct: the tri-ratna (three jewels) of Jainism.
Mahavira, though usually accepted as the founder of the faith in the context of history, is saud to be the last of a line of 24. All are said to have attained perfect wisdom by vanquishing their desires and breaking their bonds with the material world.
Jainism gained prominence around the same time. Buddha was teaching his dharma. Jainism’s ‘great hero’ Mahavira was an elder contemporary of the Buddha. The two had much in common: both were of royal descent, both rejected caste barriers and questioned the sacredness of the Vedas and both went through prolonged and rigorous discipline after renouncing the worldly life.
